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  KEYLINE Absorption-fertility cultivation techniques are so different in their effects on the land cultivated from those generally employed that their introduction on farming land will be considered as a "conversion" of land to these new principles. The first year in which these new principles operate is called "Conversion Year".

  The "conversion" cultivation has as its object the maximum possible improvement in soil structure, soil fertility and increased soil depth which can be obtained from this conversion. For this reason the first application of the technique will be different in some respects from the continuous later process. The conversion stage is to be profitable, much more so than extraction fertility methods. The continuous processes of progressive soil development are profitable both from the increase in quality and quantity of production and in the capital value of the improving land.

  Soil erosion is not considered as a problem in the process, simply because it is cured incidentally. There is no problem of erosion when its cure or solution is made profitable to those directly concerned.

  Ordinary crop land is discussed first.

  The considerations of the last chapter indicate quite clearly some important details of the type of cultivation that is desired.

  The first requirement is minimum surface cultivation, mixing whatever vegetation is available into the few top inches of the soil. Some subsoil or deep soil is to be broken to provide capacity for rapid moisture absorption. With oxygen and the other vital elements absorbed, some of the subsoil is converted to live soil. This deeper soil is only broken, and none of it is brought to the surface. The deeper cultivation is to leave an uneven bottom, not all cut out clean at the maximum depth of cultivation. The cultivation is to again unite the soil into a complete structure--not a topsoil divorced from the deep soil by a compacted layer.

  The surface of this cultivation is rough, rather than fine, in order to resist the sealing effect of heavy rain and to allow the rainfall to penetrate quickly and deeply.

  The finer materials of this surface cultivation lie below the level of this rough surface. Surface wind velocity is thus reduced--moisture losses by evaporation are lowered.

  The deeper cultivation conforms to the Keyline cultivation, which holds excessive rain longer on the land and permits more complete absorption.

  Rainfall is quickly absorbed into cultivated poor land, making it wet and heavy on the rough, uneven bottom of the cultivation. The heavy wet soil is effectively knitted to the land and resists substantial water flow if it occurs.

  New Keyline Absorption-fertility cultivation is practically erosion Proof; within a year or two of the resulting improvement to the soil, it is certainly so.

  The maximum depth of this conversion year cultivation requires some serious consideration.

  In so-called shallow or thin soils, this cultivation is restricted to a depth that can be converted successfully to an improved structure by the aid of the fertility in the top soil. Considering the top fertile soil as a yeast, it is likely that too deep a cultivation could restrict the rate of soil development. This happens if a large amount of vegetation is not available for stirring into the surface cultivation. This type of soil rarely has a large amount of vegetation available.

  The too deep cultivation of sticky clay subsoil is waste of time and money. It will seal immediately rain falls. There is generally little purpose and no profit in cultivating to depths that cannot be held by definite soil improvement.

  A good general depth guide for conversion year cultivation is double the depth of previous ploughing for crop productions, that is, approximately eight inches deep and in the poorer soils seven inches deep.

  The means and the implements available for conversion year cultivation are restricted greatly by two factors. The lines of Keyline cultivation cannot be followed satisfactorily by mouldboards or disc plows, nor are these implements suitable for the deeper cultivation that must keep the subsoil under the cultivated surface soil. They also produce the destructive even-bottom cultivation.

  They can both be made to do the surface cultivation reasonably well, while another implement of the tine type, with wider spaced rows than the usual farm implements, could complete the deeper cultivation immediately following. Some tine shapes will keep the subsoil down.

  Mouldboard plows, with the boards removed, give a satisfactory cultivation, if the final deep run is done with some shears removed to keep these furrows wider apart.

  Scarifiers or tillers both give a satisfactory surface cultivation to 4 inches, but the tine spacing and design render them unsatisfactory for the final full depth run.

  Rippers will follow the lines of Keyline cultivation for the final working. It is unnecessary in surface cultivation to do this. The resulting cultivation is satisfactory but the cost with any rigid implement is much higher than it need be.

  The Graham Chisel-type Plow is the ideal implement for conversion year cultivation. The following details of Keyline Absorption-fertility cultivation both for conversion year and the cultivations in following years, are given for use with this implement.

Conversion Year

  The standard shank row spacings of the Graham Plow are 12 inches apart, approximately double the spacing of other farm cultivating implements. The Graham Plow is equipped with tines, spikes or chisels two inches wide, which are set at 12-inch row spacings.

  With a suitably power matched tractor and Graham, set the plow's depth to enable the tractor to operate without labouring at a good speed. Five miles per hour is recommended if the surface is suitable for this speed. When stumps are encountered, reduce the speed to 3 miles per hour. The "first working" should be 3 to 4-1/2 inches deep. Large clods may result from a first cultivation which is too deep and could necessitate some special extra work to break them down. Plow three or four parallel runs completely around the area, marking out the area for cultivation clearly.

  The paddock area is then "cut out" on this first run by plowing backwards and forwards, turning in the series of parallel runs first made without necessarily reducing speed on the turns. The Graham will follow as fast as the tractor can turn.

  Plow a second complete run immediately at a long angle to the first with the plow now set deeper and travelling at the same speed. It is more economical usually to regulate the increased depth to suit the speed and not the speed to suit the depth.

  This second plowing will sometimes give a suitable surface "break-out" and the necessary depth of seven to eight inches. If this is so, the second cultivation run will follow the Keyline cultivation principle of Chapter 2.

  Usually three fast cultivation runs using two-inch chisels at twelve-inch spacing are, necessary for perfect conversion year cultivation in poor compacted soils. In this case the depth of the last run is set at seven or eight inches, as already discussed.

  This simple Keyline conversion year cultivation will commence a cycle of soil fertility that can be carried forward to greater soil improvement and will produce a better than usual crop at the same time. It will also be effective in holding the soil against erosion.

  This fast and low cost cultivation will start to improve soil immediately adequate rainfall is supplied. The natural processes of decay will, at once, go into action.

  Poor heavy soil, that is soil low in humus content, should be watched closely after heavy rain against a possible surface sealing. If this is apparent the area is given a one-run Keyline cultivation immediately the soil is sufficiently dry. The soil will improve only with adequate air. This first year is one of destiny for this soil.

  If a crop has already been sown, it is still often advisable to aerate the sealed surface soil when it is dry enough by this one-run cultivation. The spikes should be spaced at 24-inch intervals for this aeration cultivation.

  The health of the soil, the progressive development of structure, fertility and soil depth, is of infinitely greater importance to the farmer than any one crop. This outlook will, however, result in better crops all the time. Even a crop newly out of the ground and partly destroyed by a cultivation to aerate the sealed soil will usually yield better for this treatment.

  Conversion year cultivation of poor soil is completed by not more than three fast workings, each becoming progressively deeper. The last working, which is seven or eight inches deep, is the only one which follows the Keyline cultivation principle. Spikes are two inches wide and the spacings between the rows are 12 inches.

  The increased moisture of conversion cultivation will continue decay processes longer and thus obviate one of the difficulties of stubble mulch farming with disc implements, that of having too little moisture available for rapid and continuous stubble decomposition.

  The changes which will take place in this soil which has been converted to Keyline Absorption-fertility should be watched by the farmer. Only absence of rain will restrict the working of the yeast-like process of soil development.

  Examination of the underneath cultivation by removing a couple of square feet of the plowed soil will disclose the deeper chisel final furrows that knit the soil to the earth.

  Make an examination a few weeks after the first good rain has fallen--see the change--smell the soil.

  Again when a crop is well grown--examine the deeper broken subsoil--note its further changed condition. Fertility development in the surface inches will be apparent and the deeper broken subsoil will be changing into good soil.

  When the crop is stripped, examine the condition of the subsoil again to get a cue to the depth of cultivation to be followed for the next crop.

  If a change from the subsoil to a soil is definite, second year work should be a little deeper. The increase should be an inch or two at most. This broken subsoil is to be converted to soil, a little each year--progressively.

  In subsequent years, following a successful Keyline conversion year, a single run on the Keyline cultivation will complete the plowing. Now spikes or chisels with weed knives attached are used. These weed knives operate three inches below the surface, mixing growth and trash correctly into the soil for rapid decay. At the same time the chisels operate at the full cultivation depth, properly aerating the whole body of soil.

  These weed knives, which are adjustable in relation to the 2-inch chisel depth, permit a progressively deeper year-by-year cultivation, with the knives operating at a fixed depth below the surface. The uneven furrowed type bottom and the "completeness' of all the soil is preserved.

  The rate at which beneficial decay will take place in the soil will vary with soils and climatic conditions. The rate of decay accelerates as a positive new soil fertility develops. Decay of the incorporated vegetation of conversion year cultivation will be rapid given sufficient moisture. Decay in subsequent years will be much faster as the active life in the soil has been built up enormously as a result of this conversion to absorption-fertility.

  For a short time decay does tend to rob growth of some of its requirements. Both decay and growth require among other elements, moisture, air and nitrogen. A crop sown immediately in conversion cultivated land may first grow weak and yellowed from the lack of nitrogen which has been absorbed temporarily in the processes of decay. With adequate moisture, air and heat, nitrogen will be available to the crop in a few weeks. The. crop will respond with a rapid growth of healthy green foliage.

  A rapid fertility gain and almost weedless farming on this crop land can be secured by cultivating immediately the crop has been stripped and again each time a growth of grass and weeds reaches its "full green" stage prior to. the weeds seeding. The use of the chisel and weed knives combination tends to germinate all seeds together, while "soil turning" methods of cultivation do not. The "soil turning" implements bury some seeds in a dry layer of vegetation, which prevents their germination until a later cultivation, thereby assisting the continuance of weed growth.

  Weedless farming. may disclose that the present row spacing of seeders, which are close together to enable crops to partly choke weed growth, is too close for best yields.

  There is a growing well-informed body of opinion among practical Australian farmers, that wider apart seeder row-spacings will give better grain yields when weeds are not a factor.

  The sowing of seed into conversion-year cultivation requires some little changes from the old orthodox habits.

  it is of particular significance that sowing be done in such a way that this new condition of the soil is preserved as much as possible. If an ordinary grain combine is used, the cultivating tines, both the front and rear rows are removed permanently, use being made only of the two planting rows. The soil will continue to be in a suitable condition for the rapid absorption of rainfall. The use of all the tine rows on a combine may so "fine-up" the soil that it will cause puddling and washing. The use of the combine with all the cultivating tines removed will permit rougher and trashier ground to be seeded.

  Planting depth for grain will vary also, but generally seed should be planted into the moisture zone and not shallow-sown with complete dependence on later rain for germination.

  Soils of good structure and fertility may be cultivated directly with the chisel and weed knife combination. If surface cultivation ever appears to be too fine, use the chisels only.

  Cultivation of soil in very low rainfall areas should be accomplished by a shallow surface cultivation followed by a final Keyline cultivation with the chisels two feet apart. An overall cultivation that is too deep on these soils will tend to lower the moisture zone too much for best yields. As the fertility of the soil increases humus will protect the moisture and hold it at a more consistent level.

  Once a normal rainfall season follows, or good rain out of season has fallen on Keyline converted land, the moisture horizon will be more dependable. Continued year by year, Keyline Absorption-fertility cultivation will keep adequate crop moisture available for longer and longer periods into dryer times. No doubt later, on this "Keyland", one good season's rain will produce two years good crops.

  The low cost and fast operation of this method of cultivation is apparent.

  Conversion-year cultivation will usually cost less in time and money than extraction-fertility methods. Following conversion -year, costs are about one-third only of old cultivation habits.

  Deep fertile soil, then, is built up for crop land first by conversion year cultivation with an, increase in the depth of the chisel penetration each subsequent year. The weed knives operate at approximately three inches below the surface. In from three to five years soil depth to the limit of the Graham's 16-inch is formed.

  When this depth is reached, a further "wave of fertility" may be induced in this soil by reducing the penetration depth of the chisel back to approximately nine inches and adjusting the weed knives to operate deeper under the surface.

  Instead of three inches, as used in the first cycle of increasing depths, they are used five or six inches below the surface. For the following two to four years increase the operating depth of the chisels one to three inches each year, but adjust the weed knives to keep them five or six inches below the surface.

  The effect of this second series of increasing depth cultivations and increased weed knife depth is expected to add a greater depth of intensely fertile soil. By incorporating or mixing vegetation into a greater depth of top soil this should be achieved. The soil should now be in a condition to "take" this somewhat deeper mixing of vegetation, whereas in the first years it would have been largely lost as a fertility gain. At the end of this second cycle--originally poor soils in reasonable rainfall areas may rival the most fertile soils left on the face of the earth. I say "may"--I do not know--yet.