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  BRIEFLY recorded here are some experiences and incidents that were associated with the development of the Keyline plan.

  Between the years 1943 and 1950, the experiments which I carried out on my properties were based on my own experiences, coupled with some of the methods recommended by the Soil Conservation Services of America. The use of contours and gently failing drains are not the particular invention of soil conservationists but were used thousands of years before the modern understanding of soil erosion. My use of these land engineering principles then followed more closely those of the mining and construction engineer than the soil conservationist.

  For a few years following 1944, the Geography Department of the University of Sydney took some interest in the work which I was doing., Geography students used the property for some time for practical map reading and survey instrument exercises. Their work was later coordinated by the Geography Department into a complete contour map of the area. This map has been of considerable value.

  Where formerly only week-end work on my part was possible, in 1948 more was to be done. That year a qualified geographer was employed by me. As part of my business already included work which could be classed as land development, I had in mind providing increased service in "Planned" land development. Results were not satisfactory and the idea was dropped.

  I will not describe these earlier works, which included the construction of many miles of drains built with all types of implements from the smallest ditchers to the largest tandem drive road graders. As far as I am concerned, they were all valuable experience, but they did not in any way satisfy my main aim for "planned" land development. All these earlier works, with the exceptions mentioned, have now given way to Keyline.

  It is, however, worth while recording the last system of soil conservation drains which were built during 1951.

  This last area was badly gullied and surface eroded. Still believing that protective drains were necessary on such country, and may continue to be so, the drain layout was designed to suit the working of the property after the problems of erosion had disappeared. The valleys of the area all drained to a rocky creek falling to the east at a slope of 50 feet to the mile. In order to bring the surplus water from the drains closer to the creek, all drains of the system--except one--flowed or had a fall to the west. This resulted, for instance, in the top drain of one valley, where it was 500 yards from the creek, being only a short distance from the same creek when this drain was carried across three valleys.

  This greatly assisted the safe disposal of water without the grassed waterways of orthodox soil conservation.

  To complete the stabilisation of all the valleys and their problem gullies, it was only necessary for me to start work on the most easterly gully and transfer the water from this valley to the next valley westward. With the first valley stabilised, the next was treated and its water transferred to the second valley, again westward, and so on.

  All drains flowed from east to west. The highest drain on the east end of the area protected a series of small valley heads and transferred the water to a dam. The second drain broke the velocity of water from the steep valley heads and protected the larger valley into which these flowed. All the lower drains further ensured the safety of the whole area.

  These details are given for two reasons. Firstly, the layout of the drains which was the result of some years of experience was, I believed at the time, quite good. Visitors who had some knowledge of these matters commented on the excellent layout. Secondly, these were the last drains for "protection" which I constructed. Before the western end of the area was started, the basis of the Keyline idea was originated. The whole drain system was later plowed out and Keyline development instituted. The extreme western area, where drains were not constructed, was developed solely on Keyline. The work took little time, and cost approximately one-tenth of the work which had been done at the other end of the area.

  This fine system of drains was never required. None of these drains is left except those which transport water to the dams. Not only was Keyline work a fraction of the cost of the other development, but in itself was much more effective in building the soil. By instituting Keyline cultivation for absorption-fertility, erosion was immediately controlled, but the Keyline work itself was a part of ordinary farming. Keyline work in these circumstances costs nothing.

  Ten years ago, when the first system of sloping drains and banks was started, I begrudged seeing water leaving the property, knowing it ,would almost certainly be needed in a few weeks. The absorption banks and pasture furrows of orthodox conservation are very effective in preventing this loss. These were given some thought. However, I had a fixed notion that my property should eventually look better than these works would permit. I did not use either the absorption bank or the pasture furrow. A programme of contour deep ripping was started instead to keep the water on the farm. Ninety and one-hundred-and-twenty horsepower crawler tractors were used and hundreds of acres were deeply ripped. Furrows were 24 and 36 inches apart. Some of my deep ripping experiments are recorded in "Soil Erosion in Australia and New Zealand," by Prof. J. Macdonald Holmes, Ph.D. Contour deep ripping is mentioned later.

  Some years ago I used the "silt dam" and "stone check walls" of soil conservation to catch some of my own soil. The area above these structures has now been "Keylined" and the stone check walls removed. These structures are not used in Keyline except to "check" soil and water flowing onto a farm from another area.

  The technique of Keyline conversion-year cultivation to convert poor land rapidly to absorption-fertility methods is vouched for from experience. The low cost continuance of the methods, following conversion-year cultivation with the implements now used, will be experienced by many Australian farmers this year (1954) who used conversion cultivation last year. I have seen conversion-year cultivation, followed by good rain, change soil structure in a few weeks.

  The amazing results of the methods of Keyline progressive soil development that quickly increases both soil fertility and actual depth of fertile soil are completely satisfactory.

  Deep ripping on the contour 9 or 10 years ago was at first thought to be worthwhile. Now I know that with the big rippers and high power I employed this can play no important part in practical farming. The experiences were, however, of great value in the later formulation and proof of Keyline progressive soil development methods.

  Here I stress the fact that this work was not on small plots, but covered hundreds of acres.

  The Keyline development of valleys has stood the test of rainfall of near our district's maximum intensity--Richmond, N.S.W. Twenty-two inches of rain in six days, eight inches falling on the sixth day, gave an unexpected test to a large area of new work without damage. Two feet depth of water on this sixth day flowed down a newly Keyline cultivated valley. The heavy, wet-plowed soil on its rough chiselled bottom did not move. If this bottom had been of even, all-over depth from ordinary cultivation, a heavy soil loss would have resulted.

  I had experience of the control, conservation and transport of water as a mining engineer. This experience has been the real background of my work in land development. For the conservation of water on my property, I constructed 10 years ago the first "high dam", which we call Quarry Dam, with a 4-inch pipe through the wall and gate valve outlet. Quarry Dam, which has no natural catchment, is filled by a drain which collects water from a shire road. Water will flow from the road into this dam after little rainfall which will not cause waterflow anywhere on the property. A main line and spray lines from this dam give completely effective and low cost spray irrigation on an adjacent lower paddock. Good crop or high pasture yields can be produced any time without pumping the water for spray irrigation. Six dams on my properties have pipe and valve outlets through the walls. Five dams are filled by water-collecting drains. Some of the dams can be filled from larger dams by turning a 4-inch gate valve. These earlier water conservation works are now streamlined in Keyline planning with the proper placing of the dams of the Keyline plan and the logical fixing of Irrigation areas.

  Working originally without the Keyline plan, much clearing was done before I realised the value of planned clearing. Later on timber strips from 30 to 70 feet wide were left along contours. This idea now has a very definite and logical part in Keyline planning.

  I have Keyline dams in use with irrigation outlets from which a turn of a 4-inch valve starts a line of sprays. Keyline timber strips are flourishing with a Keyline road below them. The road is stable and does not wash.

  Eroded valleys have been restored by both Keyline and other methods. Holes to 12 feet deep were satisfactorily treated with the Graham Plow as suggested.

  Steep country which was developed on the Keyline plan is growing better pasture, and much better tree growth in the timber strip has resulted.

  Slopes with a fall of one in three were first Keylined. Then slopes to one in one were Keyline improved. These have had the test of heavy rains without damage and now grow improving pastures.

  The clearing of timber from valleys was decided on and practised some years ago. This was done doubtfully at first, but all experience since confirms the practice. A Keyline or Guideline timber strip can cross a valley as part of a strip and presents no problems. These timber strips are thriving on the property.

  Keyline cultivation in its use for improving soil for pasture improvement is outstandingly beneficial. Very steep slopes which I once believed impossible of economic improvement are handled simply and profitably.

  A valley on, my farm, shaped like an amphitheatre, formed by the joining of two smaller and steeper valleys, had two wet, sour runs through its upper part. These joined, forming a boggy patch through the lower level of the valley. One working of Keyline cultivation completely transformed this valley. The water and reedy rubbish disappeared with the wet runs. Moisture and growth is even throughout the whole valley.

  Another valley of totally different aspect was a problem before Keyline. It had very narrow, steep shoulders and no soil in the bottom, because of a too-rapid water run. It was of no use or value and looked ugly. Five stone check walls or soil-saving dams were put in to stop the damage and save some soil. Immediately following the Keyline idea the area above was Keyline cultivated and a crop sown. The stone checks were removed from the valley and with the rest of the strip it received one working with spikes on Keyline cultivation. The wheel tractor could just make the gully crossings. The valley is now stable and improving with fair pasture. The dry and barren shoulders of the valley get their share of the moisture which the steep valley formerly drew from them. They are growing good pasture.

  Two areas of poor sandy soil with plenty of rocks came up for improvement a few years ago. The first area was protected with a well-designed layout of contour banks and drains. Heavy rain brought us out at 2 a.m. to watch the drains work. We worked all night but eventually breaks in the banks of the poor sandy soil won. Later they were repaired and worked, but were always a worry, especially in heavy rain at night. The banks were easily damaged by tractors also if care was not always exercised. We postponed commencing the second area, which was steeper and poorer.

  Following the Keyline idea, the drains were ploughed out and the area Keyline cultivated. The postponed area was Keyline cultivated and sown. Heavy rain no longer causes any worry--it can only do good.

  As mentioned, many miles of banks and drains that formerly worked well in moving water safely off some areas have been ploughed out. We now keep the water in the land. Rain outside our absorption and conservation capacity moves off safely along the country's natural flow lines.

  The only drains ever needed on our undulating to steeply undulating country were water conservation drains that transport water for storage or transport stored water for use. These have been retained. None is in, use for soil conservation. I do not use even the word "conservation" in association with soil. It is inappropriate. I am not interested now in soil conservation, only soil development, soil structure, soil fertility, increasing soil depth, and, of course, water conservation.

  Two types of soils only, Wianamatta shale clays and Hawkesbury sandstone, are found on our properties. Both are characteristically poor. The shale-clay soils in their natural condition take rainfall slowly and dry out rapidly.

  The sandstone soils are usually pale yellow and as poor as they look. The poor quality of these two soils has really been a great advantage in development in the last few years. It took me years to realise this advantage. If wrong methods are used on the clays they become apparent, when the signs can be read, within a season. Wrong methods on fertile soil may not manifest themselves for a decade or two. When right methods are used on the poor clays this is also quickly apparent, but on fertile soil it may not be clearly shown for a long period. This is also generally true of the smaller areas of poor sandy soil.

  Recently, walking over two paddocks with a visitor in wet weather, we noticed that mud built up considerably on our boots in one paddock but in another paddock did not do so. Both paddocks carried the same soil type (shale clay), but the one with the sticky soil was nearly a year behind in Keyline Absorption-fertility development.

  Our shale and sandstone soils resemble each other a little more closely as they improve. The shale is becoming friable, looser and crumbier while the sandstone is developing some "body". Both are becoming darker.

  Last year a portion of a paddock was deliberately over-cultivated during experiments with various types of cultivating points. The areas both above and below this paddock were more correctly cultivated. Results of development and growth on the over-cultivated area was watched following the sowing of the whole area. Germination was generally good. The first effect noticed was slight soil movement on the over-cultivated area. Growth here was not noticeably poorer, in fact all growth was apparently good.

  Large numbers of crows were seen flying over the over-cultivated land and investigation disclosed millions of cutworms at work on the H.I. rye, cocksfoot, lucerne and other grasses in the sowing.

  The workers on the farm were anxious to destroy them, each with his own favourite poison. I disapproved and said that we would watch to see what would happen. Both men forecast rapid destruction for all the pastures, particularly the adjoining ones above and below. Two weeks later the pasture on the over-cultivated land was gone. However, of the cutworms that infested it in millions, not one could be found on the other areas. The cutworms disappeared without having been seen anywhere else.

  On the face of this, it appears that the over-cultivation was the only factor that influenced the course of the infestation. However, this may be too much to deduce from the isolated nature of the occurrence. The fact that I expected the cutworms to stay in the over-cultivated area may just be coincidence. I do not believe, however, that the happening was extraordinary; I believe it was a simple matter of cause and effect.

  The infested area, overcultivated as it was, surface sealed to a marked extent with the rain, and the first evidence of something wrong was seen in small erosion gutters in a few places as mentioned.

  The cure for this strip of soil, although it was at first too fine from over-cultivation, was further cultivation. But this time the sealed surface was worked once with spikes two feet apart. There is a sufficient pasture growth again apparent to ensure a good pasture with correct treatment. There was also heavy resultant growth of weeds, which were mulched mowed prior to the cultivation.

  In the process of finding a few right answers, a remarkably comprehensive knowledge of what not to do was acquired.

  Efforts have been made to pose land-use and land-development problems to the Keyline methods. This led to the conclusion that my own properties presented as many problems as any other properties examined. With the simple solution of many apparent problems, the scope and usefulness of the whole system of Keyline has extended and broadened. Now it seems that forest, town, region and state planning will be assisted as well by Keyline consideration.

  A study of Keyline principles generally is greatly assisted by accurately drawn contour farm maps. These, however, are rare. The few Australian farmers who have them are asked, as a great favour, to make their maps available to me for copying and study. The contour maps required for my purposes need to be accurately drawn of the valley regions. Contours only roughly interpolated are not of use.

  A great deal of satisfaction is experienced in the developing and improving of the property seen from Keyline work. The satisfaction is always tinged with impatience to see the next result.

  Where Keyline timber strips are seen there is a very definite "new look" to this landscape.

  Ordinary things like weather have a different aspect. Heavy rain or a fierce thunderstorm is a welcome experience. It will not now damage any part of the land; it must do good. Even a long dry spell is an interesting test of the moisture-holding capacity on an earlier Keylined paddock.

  Following 440 points of rain in six months, one paddock not Keyline treated was dry and dead; another one first Keyline cultivated nearly two years before was growing green grass.

  The possibility of damage from a bushfire is greatly diminished. The hazard paddocks Keyline cleared can be ploughed, cropped or hard stocked to protect the rest of the property from a fire danger area.

  A dry, hot and oppressive day is bearable if a pool of water is visible with a few green trees near it, and a line of Keyline sprays look hopeful and friendly. Cattle look comfortable in the shade of a Keyline or Guideline timber strip.

  The planting of trees to fit in with the Keyline scheme of things has been commenced. Results are not far advanced, but good effects from the methods suggested are clearly indicated. The rate of growth of these young Australian trees suitable for the particular district, planted as suggested, is rapid. It will not be long before a good "show" is seen,

  Some difficulties in the location of fencing seemed apparent earlier, Contour fencing was first thought to be necessary. With Keyline there is, however, little advantage from contour fencing. One placed along and below a Keyline may be useful or along the top boundary of an irrigation area.

  Some doubts may arise in the Keyline planning of difficult and unusual areas. In these instances I have found it to be better for a Common Keyline to be right in general than to be influenced too much by a particular problem area. The problem will soon disappear. If Keyline's diffusion and downhill from the valley and "off-the-contour" type of cultivation is kept in mind, no doubt a little "adjustment" to favour this aspect will induce even absorption for the awkward spot.

  Overall purposes need not be altered to suit Keyline. Keyline will suit almost any land purposes desired.

  A great deal of time was lost originally by too much concentration on mechanical methods alone without realising sufficiently the necessity of understanding the facts concerning the life of the soil.

  All sorts of experiments at adding something to the soil have been conducted. Dolomite, lime, superphosphate, fertiliser and trace elements were used.

  An extraordinary thing has happened.

  Without regard to what was added, on all areas where the methods of Keyline Absorption-fertility were effectively followed, there is, after two years, little noticeable difference to be observed in the pastures from the various treatments. Ail appear equally good. Some lucerne and clovers showed definite signs of deficiency following conversion-year Keyline cultivation, but twelve months later both were in a lush, healthy condition.

  I believe now that the requirements of the soil which are provided by the various absorption processes must be supplied before any deficiency tests can have real value. Trace elements testing of poor grass lands will be greatly assisted by first providing these absorption factors. If a deficiency then is apparent it would in all probability be a true indication of a definite need.

  At the time of writing, glaring examples of right and wrong methods are seen on my properties. Two poor soil paddocks, both treated correctly for absorption-fertility and then sown to a crop for mulching, were sown with pasture. One is growing an excellent pasture, the other nothing but weed and rubbish. The only difference I know of is in the aeration of one--the good pasture--and lack of it in the other, which was left surface sealed after heavy rain.

  Many of my earlier failures of pasture and crops are now more clearly understood.

  Relative pasture growth on land differing in cultivation treatment only showed rates of growth in the spring of two inches per day, against three-eighths of an inch per day. This was the difference between Keyline Absorption-fertility and shallow disc cultivation on my shale soil.

  Last autumn the poor disc-sown pasture was Keyline cultivated to improve the soil. The pasture is now improving rapidly.

  By clearing areas generally considered too steep, much more good timber and more pasture land is secured. The timber is better spread over the property also and more useful for shade and protection.

  The sowing methods mentioned have given excellent results. Pasture seed sown with a flow medium through the combine with the cultivating rows removed and planted in the moisture zone produced a better result with one-third of the quantity of seed than that which was earlier sown under conventional methods.

  I have mentioned the Graham Plow. There is no need to be either reticent or boastful of the qualities and capacity of the Graham Plow as the outstanding implement of progressive soil development both crop and pasture land.

  I felt that I knew, some years ago, just what type of cultivation was necessary to give my soil the opportunity for rapid development I designed and constructed several implements to do this, and they did in fact, give a suitable cultivation, but they were slow and costly in operation. They were generally very strong and rigid. The design that enables the Graham Plow to do so much so quickly and cheaply obtain: its results from the absence of costly and ineffective rigidity. The big shanks are springs, and each operates against a coil spring, which produces an oscillating digging effect. The result is instantaneous and continuous adjustment to the varying pressures at the digging points.

  The effectiveness of this double spring action has been tested by comparison with the single spring of the shank, without the coiled digging spring. I have found that the double spring is at least one gear of the tractor more effective at the same digging depth.

  The safety effect on both the tractor and the implement of this digging mechanism enables rougher country than could be formally cultivated to be rapidly and very profitably developed. Stump and boulder country can be converted to very valuable farming and grass lands. When these are in the steep country they protect the lower country from water run-off.

  It is one of my misfortunes that I did not "discover" the Graham until early in 1952.

  As mentioned earlier, I do not fully subscribe to the belief that food supply will become a critical shortage factor in population trends Transport and exchange of food supply may fail. The opposite effect, that of over-supply, is more likely to pose a problem of production costs to the Australian farmer. Here the greatly reduced costs of soil improvement for crop yields and pastures that are effected by these methods may be of vital importance. However, whether prices tend lower or not, lower costs and higher yields from continually improving soils are satisfactory aims themselves.

  The Keyline plan is not old. It is barely three years since I first visualised the Keyline as I looked up the steep valley heads just below "Nevallan" Homestead. I had been wandering about inspecting some work which had been completed that week. My eldest son, Neville, had just arrived and walked down the slope to me. I explained my new idea to him. We walked over the hills of "Nevallan" until dark, picking out the position of this "line". We became more excited about it, as we found it to be a constant feature and not just something that was peculiar to one or two valleys.

  During the following year many family discussions developed the theoretical and practical aspects of "the line". At first it was seen simply as a cultivation guide which gave promise as a means of developing poor erodable land without the usual costly drain systems. We used to refer to Keyline cultivation as "the valley method of cultivation". It was tried out as a cultivation guide on a high steep paddock that had been previously worked. We hoped for heavy rain to test its efficiency. On a Sunday afternoon shortly afterwards heavy rain commenced. With tremendous interest and indeed some excitement we watched its effect while five inches of rain fell. There was no damage. At no time during this storm did water lie in the tine furrows of the cultivation. A dam immediately below could have received any soil wash, but no water reached it. The "Keylined" land absorbed it. On the following Tuesday evening I noticed that the dam was filled, but no one had seen water run into it.

  The Keyline plan now is complete as a general or basic guide for land development, but there is still a lot to be done.

  Every method of agriculture which we have used is constantly being critically examined to determine whether it gets its result by extracting fertility or whether it conforms to. Keyline's conception of ever-increasing fertility by absorption.

  Many new ideas and techniques that were indicated by the general course of the development of Keyline are now being tested. These include such items as pest control, pasture management, special sowing methods, and cheaper and more effective means for soil testing. New methods in the use of fertiliser and trace elements are showing great promise.

  Very interesting results of various weed treatments and their effect on soil and pasture have been noted. Some of these weeds are likely to be of great importance and value in rapidly improving very poor soils.

  I have no doubt that with the emphasis on absorption-fertility as much as on production, farmers and graziers will find many new and better ways of contributing further life and value to their Fertile Soil.